Home > News > Links
To read the story, click on the item
Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail
• Bill to create Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail passes Senate!
• Bill to Establish Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail Reintroduced
• Pacific Northwest Economic Region Endorses Trail Bill
• It's time to urge Congressional action on National Geologic Trail
In the Field and the Lab
• IAFI Spring 2006 meeting and field trip
• New findings on magnitude, frequency, chronology of floods
• IAFI field trip recently held in upper Columbia Gorge
• Burlingame Canyon, other sites yield new evidence of tens of floods
• Floods discussed at Seattle meeting of Geological Society of America
• Erratics in Pasco Basin being cataloged and counted
• GSA field trip explores Glacial Lake Missoula, other floods sites
• New approach reported for dating human migration to Americas
In the Media
• Floods article published in California Academy of Sciences magazine
• Associated Press carried three stories about the floods
Institute News
• Interpretive paintings of floods on exhibit in Richland
• Attractive new brochure publicizes Ice Age Floods Institute
• IAFI Newsletter to be revived
• 2004 IAFI membership enrollment, chapter selection under way
• IAFI Board members and officers elected
• Spokane-area (Cheney-Palouse) IAFI chapter formed, field trip May 22
• Development of IAFI's website continues
The IAFI Spring Board meeting will be held on Friday afternoon, April 28. Bruce Bjornstad will present a preview of the field trip in a public lecture Friday evening at 7 pm at the Clarion Hotel, 1515 George Washington Way, Richland, (509) 946-4121. Saturday field trip is "Ice-Age Floods Through the Western Channeled Scabland". This all-day trip by bus will be led by Bruce Bjornstad and will cover approximately 230 miles, including Esquatzel Coulee, Othello Channels, Drumheller Channels, West Bar Giant Current Ripples, Potholes Coulee, Quincy Lakes, Frenchman Coulee, Frenchman Gap, Beverly Bar, Sentinel Gap, Priest Rapids Bar, Cold Creek Bar, Pasco Basin Erratics and Bergmouds, and the Lake Lewis Isles. For a preview of some of the features to be explored on the field trip, please see the March 2006 issue of The Pleistocene Post. To participate, please complete the Registration and Waiver Forms and send them along with your check to Monte Nail, IAFI Treasurer. His address is on the registration form. The Clarion Hotel (800-635-3980) in Richland is offering preferred lodging rates for participants. Contact: George Last; (509) 946-8050.
[back to top] Posted 3/1/06
On Wednesday afternoon the U.S. Senate unanimously approved legislation that will create an Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail in the Northwest. Titled the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail Designation Act of 2005, its congressional summary reads in part:
"A trail from Missoula, Montana to the Pacific Ocean, to provide for the public appreciation, understanding, and enjoyment of the nationally significant natural and cultural features of the Ice Age Floods and to promote efforts to interpret and educate along the pathways of the floods."
The bill requires the Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Director of the National Park Service, to administer the Trail. It allows the Secretary to establish and operate a Trail management office within the vicinity of the Trail. It also requires the Secretary to prepare a cooperative management and interpretation plan for the Trail.
S. 206 was sponsored by Sen. Maria Cantwell (D-Washington) and co-sponsored by Sens. Conrad Burns (R-Montana), Larry Craig (R-Idaho), Patty Murray (D-Washington), Gordon Smith (R-Oregon) and Ron Wyden (D-Oregon). The bill, H.B. 383 in the U.S. House of Representatives, still must be approved by the House before being enacted.
An Ice Age Floods Study of Alternatives and Environmental Assessment is online at http://www.nps.gov/iceagefloods/. The text of S. 206 and H.R. 383 can be found by searching http://thomas.loc.gov.
This is great news! More information about the proposed Trail and how to help get the legislation passed can be found here.
[back to top] Posted 11/18/05
In late January, Washington Congressman Doc Hastings and Senator Maria Cantwell reintroduced legislation in Congress calling for designation of the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail across much of the Pacific Northwest. These bills are designated H.R. 383 in the House and S. 206 in the Senate. Early bill cosponsors in the House include Brian Baird, Jay Inslee and Cathy McMorris of Washington, Peter DeFazio, Earl Blumenauer, Darlene Hooley and David Wu of Oregon, C.L. "Butch" Otter and Michael Simpson of Idaho and Dennis Rehberg of Montana. Early Senate cosponsors include Conrad Burns of Montana, Patty Murray of Washington, Gordon Smith of Oregon and Larry Craig of Idaho. Senator Ron Wyden of Oregon became a cosponsor on June 28th.
The Senate Subcommittee on National Parks heard testimony on S. 206 on June 28, 2005. The following week Mr. Tom Lillie, a committee staff person, toured the route of the floods and met with several Ice Age Floods Institute members and trail supporters. The bill was marked up during the summer and unanimously passed in amended form by the Senate Energy Committee on September 28, 2005. It has been placed on the Senate calendar and awaits floor action as this newsletter goes to press.
Movement in the House has yet to begin, but it is hoped that the House Committee on Resources will soon consider the legislation. A positive development occurred on October 28th when Oregon Congressman Greg Walden signed on as the bill's eleventh cosponsor. Congressman Walden joins three other cosponsors who serve on the House Resources Committee.
Navigating the legislative process is a difficult undertaking for a bill. About 90% of proposed bills never make it through and those that do pass can take years. Trail legislation was first introduced in 2004 and we are encouraged that the bills have come this far in one year.
The process of establishing a trail such as this is often long, as we are beginning to understand. The above legislation is really only the next step. When the designation bill is passed, money will still need to be appropriated. That amounts to another round of committee work and hopefully a final vote. If we are fortunate, these two steps may be accomplished this year. That will take us to the management plan study which will determine exactly how the trail will be managed and what features, interpretive facilities, etc. will be included. The National Park Service will conduct the study in conjunction with the Ice Age Floods Institute and other interested parties.
We need to thank those lawmakers who have already pledged their support for the Trail. The few legislators who have not yet joined this effort need to hear from their constituents. If your Representative or Senator has not yet signed on, make an appointment to meet with their staff. Have the staff watch one of the videos on the floods. The Great Floods video is a great one. Let them know that their constituents want them to support trail designation.
More information about the proposed Trail and how to help get the legislation passed can be found here.
[back to top] Originally posted 11/2/05
On August 15, 2005, the Pacific Northwest Economic Region (PNWER) issued a letter of support for federal legislation currently pending in Congress (SB 206 & HR383) which calls for the creation of the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail. The organization formally adopted the resolution in support of the trail at its annual Summit Meeting held last month in Seattle.
The trail, which includes the states of Oregon, Washington, Montana, and Idaho, will interpret the path of the cataclysmic Pleistocene Missoula floods and the visible impact they had on the geography and geology in this region. The federal legislation, pending in the 109th Congress, has a broad base of support especially from US House and Senate representatives in the four states.
HR 383 was introduced by Rep. Doc Hastings [R-WA] on January 26, 2005, and lists the following co-sponsors: Rep. Brian Baird [D-WA], Rep. Earl Blumenauer [D-OR], Rep. Peter DeFazio [D-OR], Rep. Darlene Hooley [D-OR], Rep. Jay Inslee [D-WA], Rep. Cathy McMorris [R-WA], Rep. C.L. Otter [R-ID], Rep. Dennis Rehberg [R-MT], Rep. Michael Simpson [R-ID] and Rep. David Wu [D-OR].
SB 206 was introduced by Senator Maria Cantwell [D-WA] on January 31, 2005,and lists the following co-sponsors: Sen. Conrad Burns [R-MT], Sen. Larry Craig [R-ID}, Sen. Patty Murray [D-WA], Sen. Gordon Smith [R-OR], and Sen. Ron Wyden [D-OR].
PNWER is a public-private partnership representing Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana, British Columbia and the Yukon region. Its mission is to foster sustainable economic development throughout the entire region.
The Approved Resolutions & Actions Points were drafted after PNWER’s Tourism Working Group evaluated the project and determined that the trail will “be a major draw for tourists from throughout the world and have a significant tourism economic impact on the region.”
[back to top] Posted 8/27/05
Legislation must be introduced early in the next session to receive
consideration
Now is the time to let your Representatives and Senators know that you support for action on the Trail, as a nonpartisan, “clean” program that can develop new educational and recreational uses of public lands and enhance rural economies.
Legislation must be introduced at the beginning of the next session to have any reasonable prospect of being considered by the 108th Congress.
The holiday recess of Congress is a good opportunity to meet the legislators while they are at home in their states and districts. Letters and email messages can be sent at any time, but there is no reason not to begin sending them now.
Anyone or any group interested in seeing the Trail project go forward should communicate their interest and support to their U.S. Representative and Senators, a total of three contacts that each constituent could make.
See The Proposed Trail section for background information on this proposal, and links to the park service's Special Study report and other resources.
It may need to be emphasized again and again that the Trail project that is recommended in the report, and supported by the Institute, does not constitute a threat to private property rights.
Further information is available from Board members and Chapter presidents (see Contact IAFI) and from Scott Waichler at scott@lifetime.oregonstate.edu.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
Surveys evidence of repeated catastrophic flooding
On Oct. 11, Jim O’Connor and Richard Waitt led a major IAFI field trip to explore significant Ice Age Floods features near The Dalles, OR, and upriver in the Gorge. Jim and Richard are both geologists with the US Geological Survey and highly experienced, well known investigators of the floods. The emphasis of the trip was on distinguishing evidence for the number of late Pleistocene floods and the range of their respective power and volume. (See the following item, about related research.)
After enduring some rain in the morning, the group of sixty field-trippers finished the day enthused about what they had seen and learned. Participants had come from as far away as Missoula and Columbia Falls, MT, for the trip, which was held in conjunction with the IAFI Annual Meeting. Copies of the tour guide will soon be made available through the IAFI Store.
The trip was another demonstration of the collaborative spirit that characterizes
the development of the Ice Age Floods Trail concept. In addition to the expert
presentation made by the tour leaders, from USGS, effective support services
were provided by Dan Spatz, editor of The Dalles Chronicle; Mike Ferris, public
affairs officer of the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area (Forest Service);
and Gary Kleinknecht, high school teacher and president of the IAFI Lake Lewis
Chapter (Tri-Cities, WA).
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
The Institute's fall field trip (see item above) explored part of the area
covered in a recently published paper, coauthored by tour co-leader Jim O’Connor.:
“Number and Size of Last-Glacial Missoula Floods in the Columbia River
Valley between the Pasco Basin, Washington, and Portland, Oregon”, by Gerardo
Benito and Jim E. O’Connor, published in the Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 116, no. 5, pp. 624636 (May 2003).
Some of the points developed in the paper:
• Field evidence and radiocarbon age dating, combined with hydraulic flow modeling, provide new information on the magnitude, frequency, and chronology of late Pleistocene Missoula floods in the Columbia River Valley.
• More than 25 of the late Pleistocene floods had discharges greater than 1 million cubic meters per second. At least six had peak discharges greater than 6.5 million cubic meters per second, and at least one flood had a peak discharge of about 10 million cubic meters per second.
• Stratigraphy and geomorphic position, combined with radiocarbon age data and the widespread occurrence of the Mount St. Helens set-S tephra, show that most if not all of the Missoula flood deposits exposed in the study area were emplaced after 19,000 years ago (radiocarbon years), and many were emplaced after 15,000 years ago. More than 13 floods may have occurred more recently than 13,000 years ago, including at least two with discharges of more than 1 million cubic meters per second.
• From discharge and stratigraphic relationships upstream, the authors hypothesize that the largest flood in the study reach predated upstream blockage of the Columbia River Valley by the Cordilleran ice sheet.
• The majority of later floods recorded by fine- and coarse-grained deposits probably resulted from multiple releases of glacial Lake Missoula that spilled into a blocked and inundated Columbia River Valley upstream of the Okanogan lobe of the ice sheet and then were shunted south across the Channeled Scabland.
[Full text of the paper is not available online to nonsubscribers
to GSA Journal; the abstract is available here.
Supplemental GSA Data Repository item 2003067
is available at:
ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2003/2003 067.pdf
or at http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2003.htm
]
[back to top] Posted 11/28/03
Planning is under way for a major IAFI field trip that will focus on Moses Coulee, Wash. The trip will be led by Brent Cunderla (BLM) and Richard Waitt (USGS), and will be held on Saturday, April 17. The Wenatchee Valley Erratics Chapter and the Institute will be co-sponsors of the trip.
Moses Coulee lies to the west of Grand Coulee and is impressive and fascinating in its own right, but has received much less attention than Grand Coulee. Moses Coulee has an important place in the early chapters of the Ice Age Floods story; its development occurred under different conditions of glacial extension and river blockage than were the case for the most recent floods.
Registrations will not be accepted before arrangements and fees are settled; announcements and registration materials will go first to Institute members, and then will be sent to nonmembers who are on the mailing list, and a notice will be posted here on the website.
In addition, the Glacial Lake Missoula Chapter has set the date for their spring field trip. It will be on May 1st and possible the 2nd as well. They are thinking about offering the field trip as a one or two day option. They will be going to the site of the ice dam at the border of Montana and Idaho. The trip may be done as a one day field trip, with the possibility of extending it to two days by staying overnight in Sandpoint, Idaho. For more information, contact Chapter president Larry Lambert.
The newly formed Cheney-Palouse Chapter is having a field trip May 22, registration
for the "Follow the Floods Near Cheney" outing is required by
May 1st, to ensure transportation.
[back to top] Posted 1/25/04
Artists Stev Ominski and Brian Swaren have created a number of paintings, watercolors and drawings in consultation with subject experts, in order to present views of what we might have seen, if we had been there as the floods happened. Exhibits of the full collection of paintings have recently been held at the Columbia River Exhibition of History, Science & Technology (CREHST) museum in Richland, Washington, and at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon.
The artists have recently completed three new pieces to further describe the events of the end of the last ice age. The additions include, “Dry Falls Aerial,” “Dry Falls: Final Design and Color Study for Plunge Pool,” and “Rocky Butte: The Ice Age Floods in East Portland.” These three new paintings are on display at the CREHST Museum in Richland through March 14, 2004. CREHST is located at 95 Lee Blvd., Richland, Washington. Visitors are welcomed Monday through Saturday, 10 to five and Sunday noon to five. For more information and driving instructions for the museum, please call 943-9000.
[back to top] Posted 12/22/03
New paper details analysis of paleomagnetic variations and tephra layers
A recently published paper adds evidence to support the view that certain remarkable and frequently photographed layered deposits in the Columbia Basin are the result of many separate floods, and not the result of multiple surges or “sloshing” that might have occurred during only a few floods.
To paraphrase the abstract:
Paleomagnetic analysis and a hiatus defined by two tephra layers confirm that tens of floods from Glacial Lake Missoula, Montana, entered Washington's Yakima and Walla Walla Valleys during the last glaciation.
Waterlaid silt beds in three sections of rhythmically bedded flood deposits at Zillah, Touchet, and Burlingame Canyon display consistent paleomagnetic variation that correlates serially both within and between sections.
Furthermore, deposits of two successive floods are separated by two tephras derived from Mount St. Helens. The tephras differ in age by decades, indicating that a period at least this long separated two successive floods.
The beds produced by these two floods are similar to all of the 40 beds in the slack-water sediment sequence, suggesting that the sequence is a product of tens of floods spanning a period of perhaps a few thousand years.
Clague, J.J., R. Barendregt, R.J. Enkin and F.F. Foit, Jr., 2003, “Paleomagnetic
and Tephra Evidence for Tens of Missoula Floods in Southern Washington,”
Geology, v. 31, p. 247250.
Abstract is online at
http://www.gsajournals.org/gsaonline/?request=getarchive
At Volume 31, click on “Author Index”, then scroll to and click on
“Clague, John J.”
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
The Geological Society of America held its 2003 meeting in Seattle Nov. 2-5, and it was reported to have been the second largest meeting, and to have had the highest number of papers and presentations on the program of any annual meeting in GSA history. A good number of presentations were pertinent to the Ice Age Floods and megafloods topics, and a list of significant examples may be posted here soon. One report that attracted particular interest was given by Bruce Bjornstad, about berg-rafted boulders found in the Pasco Basin (see following item). The content of many of the presentations will be appearing as published papers in the near future.
[back to top] Posted 11/28/03
Geologist Bruce Bjornstad, vice-president of the Lake Lewis Chapter of IAFI, has been mapping the distribution of glacial erratics in an area of the Pasco Basin, working with Elysia Jennett, a student teacher from the University of Arizona, and Gary Kleinknecht, president of the Lake Lewis Chapter. This past summer they studied a long-protected, sparsely vegetated, 15 sq mile area on the NE flank of Rattlesnake Mountain, now part of the Hanford Reach National Monument. Within this area over 1100 erratics with >1 sq ft area (planview) and bergmounds were recorded using a hand-held GPS.
Ice-rafted debris accumulated in slackwater areas up to an elevation of 1200 ft within the Pasco Basin during repeated Pleistocene cataclysmic floods. Floodwaters backed up behind a hydraulic constriction at Wallula Gap, forming the temporary Lake Lewis and depositing ice-rafted erratics and bergmounds along the gently sloping flanks of Rattlesnake Mountain.
As mentioned above, this research was recently presented at the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America in Seattle. Media coverage of the research can be found here.
[back to top] Posted 11/28/03
As a three-day pre-meeting field trip offered by GSA, Norm Smyers (Lolo and Flathead Natl. Forests) and Roy Breckenridge (Idaho Geological Survey and Univ. of Idaho) led a group that explored the area between Spokane and Missoula. The ice dam site and outburst areas were included, as well as landforms left behind on the floor and shores of Lake Missoula and along the path of the exiting lake water. The trip was open to people who were not GSA members and a number of IAFI members participated.
[back to top] Posted 11/28/03
“MARKING THE FIRST AMERICANS' ARRIVAL." Under that headline, an item in the online science news service The Scientist (www.thescientist.com, v. 17, no. 20, Oct.20, 2003) describes a new genetic approach to dating human migration from Asia into North America. The work would bear on the open question of whether people were there to experience the Ice Age Floods.
To quote the opening paragraph of the news item: “Y-chromosome genetic markers show that people first arrived on the North American continent about 14,000 years ago, according to two papers in the American Journal of Human Genetics. This is more recent than previously thought; mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies had suggested an entry date of 30,000 years ago.”
The two cited papers are:
M. Seielstad et al., "A novel Y-chromosome variant puts an upper limit on the timing of first entry into the Americas," American Journal of Human Genetics, 73:700-05, September 2003.
M. Bortolini et al., "Y-chromosome evidence for differing ancient demographic histories in the Americas," American Journal of Human Genetics, 73:52439, September 2003.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
The fall issue of California Wild, the quarterly magazine of the California
Academy of Sciences, includes an article about “Missoula’s Monster
Floods” by
George and Rhonda Ostertag, nature and travel writers based in Keizer, Ore.
The article tells the story of the floods and their effects and includes a special note about the status of the proposal for the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
One story is picked up by at least two online news services
In the spring, The Daily Inter Lake, in Kalispell, MT, carried a feature story about a field trip sponsored by the Glacial Lake Missoula Chapter. The story was written by Bill Spence and was picked up by the Associated Press and re-published in several newspapers across the region.
Early in October, before the IAFI meeting and field trip in The Dalles, Joe Frazier, at the Portland AP office, put a story on the wire about the proposed Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail and the upcoming IAFI events in The Dalles, and this story also appeared in a number of papers in the region.
A shorter version of the story, concentrating on the floods and the proposed Trail, was more recently sent out on the AP wire. It was featured by both Yahoo! News and CBSNews.com on Nov. 10 and probably reached a very large audience.
[back to top] Posted 11/28/03
Available for distribution throughout the Northwest
The Ice Age Floods Institute has just published a new brochure to promote the floods throughout the Northwest. Susan Sprague, interpretive artist in Wallowa, Ore., designed and edited the new brochure. Grant County Tourism (WA) provided half of the funding for printing.
The brochure is intended to spark interest in the floods, the proposed National Geologic Trail, and the Institute. If you have appropriate situations for placing or using the brochure, and would like a sample or a larger quantity of the brochures, contact Karen Wagner at 800-992-6234 or information@moses-lake.com.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
After a long hiatus, the publication of the IAFI Newsletter will soon be resumed on a quarterly schedule. The volunteers who will make this happen are Signe Wurstner and Scott Waichler, both members of the Lake Lewis Chapter (Tri-Cities, Wash.). Signe will be Newsletter Editor and Scott will be Associate Editor, and they will work with Chris Murray, IAFI's Sitemaster, to coordinate the presentation of news in the newsletter and on this website.
Reporters and contributors will be needed. If you are interested in writing for the newsletter, please contact Signe at signe@verizon.net.
All formats formerly used for sending out the newsletter electronically will be replaced by sending an email attachment in PDF (Adobe Portable Document Format). The paper edition, which has been sent to some readers by U.S. Mail, will not be abandoned, but everyone who has an email connection will be urged to switch to receiving the Newsletter by email. This will reduce mailing costs to the Institute.
It will be possible to use graphics and color in the PDF version, and it is important to note that Acrobat Reader (now renamed Adobe Reader) has not been found to pass computer viruses.
If you would like to be added to the newsletter email list, or if your email address should be updated, send a message that includes your name (first and last) and location, and that shows your preferred email address, to scott@lifetime.oregonstate.edu, with a copy to dmiddleton1@earthlink.net.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
Dues paid now will be credited through Dec. 2004
Members’ dues constitute nearly the entire support available to maintain and enhance IAFI and chapter programs. The recently published brochure and the re-design of this Website are examples of the investment of funds to reach more people with the floods story, and to attract more support for the Institute’s educational work.
We invite everyone who has an interest in the floods to make a tangible contribution to the effort by joining the Institute or promptly renewing their membership. A membership application (PDF) can be printed by clicking here.
If you select a chapter on the membership form your Institute dues will be shared with that chapter, as full payment of your dues for Institute and chapter membership.
[back to top] Posted 11/17/03
Membership meeting and Board session also address IAFI program priorities
The Institute’s 2003 general membership meeting was held Friday evening, Oct. 10, at the Shilo Inn in The Dalles, OR, in conjunction with the field trip that was held the next day.
The main business of the membership meeting was to discuss Institute and chapter organization and programs, and elect several Directors. Major topics were:
• Engaging and communicating support for the designation of the Ice Age Floods Trail
• Receiving reports from established chapters about their current activities and their experiences in organizing the chapters
• Restoring and enhancing communication channels, particularly the Newsletter
For the five open positions on the Board of Directors, these nominees were elected or re-elected by the members present, to three-year terms:
| Taylor Hunt | Gaston, OR |
| Charles Mason | Rock Island, WA |
| Dale Middleton | Seattle, WA |
| Pete Pettersen | Missoula, MT |
| Karen Wagner | Moses Lake, WA |
Pete Pettersen is new to the Board. He is active in the Glacial Lake Missoula Chapter, serving the chapter as Secretary-Treasurer.
Stan Grant, of Deer Park, WA, had served on the Board for a three-year term but did not feel that he could continue to give adequate time and attention to Board participation. He has expressed his willingness to help with special projects, but his experience and judgment will be missed on the Board.
The Board of Directors met for an informal planning discussion following the membership meeting. Major items in the discussion were:
• Developing a more effective approach to organizing and expressing support for the Trail proposal
• Engaging interested members to take over editing and production of the Newsletter
• Considering dates for a spring field trip and Board meeting
Subsequently the Board took action to elect officers and fill the two additional Executive Committee positions, all for one-year terms. Those elected were:
| President | Dale Middleton |
| Vice President | Dean Ladd |
| Secretary | Karen Wagner |
| Treasurer | Jim Pritchard |
| Executive Committee | Gene Kiver |
| Executive Committee | Pete Petterson |
The full membership of the Board is listed in the directory. To request a copy of the IAFI bylaws, contact Dale at (206) 784-3146 or dmiddleton1@earthlink.net.
Posted 11/28/03
back to top | return to News page | IAFI Home
|
The Ice Age Floods Institute is a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt, non-profit organization. ©Copyright 2002-2004 by IAFI and content contributors. All rights reserved. |
Last updated 8/01/04. Contact the Sitemaster.